Use of cbt in helping children experiencing nightmares, anxiety disorders and bipolar disorders The WritePass Journal

Use of cbt in helping children experiencing nightmares, anxiety disorders and bipolar disorders   Introduction Use of cbt in helping children experiencing nightmares, anxiety disorders and bipolar disorders   IntroductionTHE CASE OF 8 YEAR OLD ESTHERPART 1 – MAJOR ISSUES AND THEIR DESCRIPTIONSNIGHTMARES AND DREAMS IN CHILDRENNightmares and emotionsNightmares and developmental ProcessNightmares and Traumatic experiencesNightmares and AffectANXIETY DISORDERS IN CHILDRENAnxiety Disorders and Neuro-cognitive functioning in childrenMOOD DISORDERS IN CHILDRENPART 2. INTERVENTION WITH CBTCBT FOR NIGHTMARESCBT FOR ANXIETY DISORDERSCBT FOR MOOD DISORDERSOTHER AREASCONCLUSION:BIBLIOGRAPHYRelated   Introduction THE CASE OF 8 YEAR OLD ESTHER The major issues that trouble 8 years old Esther are nightmares, anxiety problems and mood disorders. It is obvious from Esther’s family history that she shares the feeling of insecurity and depressive symptoms from her parents. The history of sexual abuse in the family makes her situation highly vulnerable. Esther is in need of help to overcome her haunting nightmares and anxieties about herself and her beloved ones. She also needs support in overcoming mood disorders. The family environment also needs to be modified so as to give positive energy for the child to improve her cognitive and behavioural skills and to overcome her problems. The theoretical approach that can help Esther in overcoming her issues more effectively is CBT. CBT techniques focus on cognitive areas and behavioural areas at the same time and therefore they are more effective in bringing out progressive changes in the subjects. CBT is a psychotherapeutic approach to find a solution to people’s emotional, behavioural and cognitive dysfunctions. CBT is recommended by NICE (National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence) as an effective therapy for a number of problems like Post Traumatic Stress Disorder, Clinical Anxiety and Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD) (wikepedia.org). PART 1 – MAJOR ISSUES AND THEIR DESCRIPTIONS NIGHTMARES AND DREAMS IN CHILDREN Nightmares and emotions American Psychiatric Association (DSM-IV-TR, 2000) and American Sleep Disorders Association (ICSD – II; International classification of sleep disorders: diagnostic and coding manual, 2005) define nightmares in association with the awakenings occur in the REM (Rapid Eye Movement) where the individual’s mental activities can be recalled so easily as the brain is active, even while the individual is sleeping. Nightmares do have some emotional component as well and which mostly associated with fear-, anger and disgust (Zadra A, and Donderi, D.C., 1994) among the various types of nightmares, idiopathic nightmares – the cause of which still remains unrevealed – are more severe and worrying. Nightmares and developmental Process Studies on children’s dreams and nightmares suggest that dreams and nightmares can be used to disclose the various developmental changes (Siegel, B. Allen, 2005). Children’s age is an important factor in their dreams that is their ability to remember and describe what they see in dreams. According to Siegel (2005), age affects children’s capacity to explain what they see in dreams and to link them with their day today life events. This study has pointed out that gender is the next important variable that affects dreams in children (Siegel, B. Allen, 2005). Nightmares are generally are considered as part of the developmental process of children and adolescents and it does not need any treatment because they will cease to disturb them as their maturational process comes to its end (Terr L., 1987; Vela-Bueno A. et al,1985; Klackenberg,G., 1971).   This view is supported by a range of literature of treatment of medical, psychological and psychiatric treatment of nightmares (Halliday, G., 1987). There are studies which prove that nightmares and dreams occur frequently in higher rates in children and adolescents. A recent meta-analysis by Sandoval, D. et al (1997) says that the occurrence of nightmares in children and adolescents very high, though the level varies at different stages of childhood and adolescence. They have found that the prevalence rate is higher in the early childhood category with 42.2 per cent. Another major finding of this study was that 42 per cent of the adults experiencing chronic nightmares had the problem onset by the age of 15 years and more than 50 per cent of the adult victims of chronic nightmares developed their problem before the age of 20 years.   Even if nightmares are likely to decrease with the progress in maturational process, there are chances for them to turn out as disorders in some children and adolescents, due to a range of environmental factors that affect psychological balance like the death of a dear person, sexual or physical abuse or neglect by parents, carers, teachers, siblings, peers etc (Achenbach, T.M., 1981; Hartman, E., 1984). All these are evidences to the fact that children and adolescents experience nightmares in higher rates and chronic nightmares make a number of them to suffer, sometimes in their adulthood as well. Dreams and nightmares are normal but their interaction with unexpected and negative environmental factors – a few of them are listed before – affects the victims to make their life worse with chronic instances of nightmares. Nightmares and Traumatic experiences Traumatic experiences are found to have associations with nightmares. Most of the individuals with severe traumatic experiences can re-experience the event in the forms of nightmares and flashbacks. 75 per cent of the with post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) experience the traumatic events in the forms of nightmares (Kilpatrick et al., 1994) and the rate of nightmare occurrence is higher in those who were traumatised by incidents like violence, rape and natural calamities. Krakrow et al (1995) conducted a study among the women who were diagnosed with PTSD after sexual abuse and assaults and found that 60 per cent of them were suffering from nightmares. Among them those women who survived rape were found to be suffering from higher frequency with 26 per cent. Nightmares and Affect There exists no scientific definition for dreams which is approved by everyone. Hence nightmares are interpreted as ‘unpleasant or frightening dreams’ (Pagel1, JF, Helfter, P., 2003). Nightmares have some negative affect in the individuals and it is this affect that causes disturbance or awakening during sleep (Zervas, I.M., Soldatos, C.R., 2005). Many efforts are made by applied scientists to explore the causes, mechanism and manifestations of dreams and nightmares in human beings (Soldatos CR, Paparrigopoulos TJ., 2005). Affect can be originated while a person is sleeping either by troubled homeostasis or through ‘the resynchronization of previously established affect-cognitive’ state (Georg Schulze, 2006). Dreams and nightmares in children were always of higher importance among the researchers. Latest techniques likes content analysis research have become highly successful in explaining how dreams and nightmares in children can be used to read the effects of developmental changes in them. The task of analysing dreams in children in early childhood and childhood are difficult than the dreams of adolescents because the former group are less capable of recalling their dreams and to narrate them clearly (Siegel, B. Allen, 2005). ANXIETY DISORDERS IN CHILDREN Children and adolescents are no exceptions to anxiety disorders. Studies have found that 2.6-5.9 per cent of children experience overanxious disorder (OAD) and 2-5.4 per cent of them suffer from separation anxiety disorder (SAD) (Anderson, 1994). Anxiety disorders in children and adolescents have links with their language skills and thinking (cognitive) flexibility. Anxiety related disorders are not yet identified outside the verbal processes in Children (Toren, P., 2000). Different anxiety disorders and other psychological disorders have co-morbid relationships among them (Toren, P., 2000). Anxiety Disorders and Neuro-cognitive functioning in children Anxiety disorders in children and adolescents affect their neuro-cognitive functioning. Hooper and March (1995) and Benjamin, et al (1990) have identified that young children and adolescents with anxiety disorders are often noted by their teachers for poor academic performance. They suggest that this is the result of the neuro-cognition based learning disabilities in the children with anxiety disorders. There are no evidences for the relationship between childhood and adolescent anxiety disorders and brain dysfunction but it is found that anxiety can affect the adaptation skills of children and adolescents (Hooper and march, 1995). Anxiety disorders have more specific and apparent impacts on the cognitive growth and development of children and adolescents. The studies using self-statement questionnaire have traced out the frequency, essence and depth of thoughts of children and adolescents with anxiety disorders; during and before performing tasks like writing (Kendall and Chansky, 1991). Eysenck (1990) has drafted a special scheme to understand the cognitive functioning of children and adolescents with anxiety disorders. The finding is portrayed as ‘threatening’ by Eysenck as he noted that children with anxiety disorders developed a sense of negative perception on themselves and the world around them. He has observed that the information processing system in such children operated so selectively with negative perception on themselves and the social environment. Children and adolescent with anxiety disorders shows a kind of biased processing of information with negative attitudes (Mogg, et al, 1993 ) and behaviour with ‘task-inhibiting thoughts’ (Francis, 1988). The negative attitude and perception on themselves, their tasks and on the whole society etc. are higher in children with higher anxiety related problems, when compared to their peers who had no anxiety related problems. It is also found that children experiencing anxiety disorders have difficulties in controlling their cognitive processes and attention on things they are doing. They are found to have difficulty to respond immediately in accordance with internal and external stimuli that make them to act properly with situational requirements (Kendall and Chansky, 1991). Anxiety disorders are not specific to any specific period in human life but their prevalence is widely recognised to occur at any time in the lifetime of an individual (Kessler et al., 2005). Anxiety disorders affect not only the individuals who suffer them but at the same time they have gained a socioeconomic concern and at the same time there is shortage of information to explain the scope of anxiety disorders above the sphere of OCD (obsessive compulsive disorders) (Paul Hammerness, 2007). The existing literature on childhood anxiety disorders were criticised for their limited information. Those studies were criticised for being conducted with limited samples and for limited techniques of data collection. And they failed to provide accurate information on individual syndromes by coming out of the broad areas. The research on childhood anxiety disorders is yet to come out of the traditional definitions that are limited to separation anxiety. It further needs to supply information about the disorders which have co-morbidity with childhood anxiety disorders. (Paul Hammerness, 2007). The field of study of childhood anxiety disorders need to be fortified with relevant, scientific and clinical evidences so as to have more accurate findings on the causes and effects of those disorders. The co-morbidity factor of childhood anxiety disorders is yet to be explored in detail. It is inevitable for providing help and support to children who are clinically challenged with childhood anxiety disorders. Above all, these studies must be capable of providing inputs to public health knowledge base and strategy formulation for earlier interventions to address the issues related with childhood anxiety disorders (Paul Hammerness, 2007). MOOD DISORDERS IN CHILDREN Mood disorders are mainly classified into four types by the DSM-IV-TR (APA, 2000) namely ‘depressive disorders’, ‘bipolar disorders’ ‘mood disorders due to medical conditions’ and ‘substance-induced mood disorders. Children and adolescents with mood disorders suffer from a lot of personal, familial and social problems. Mood disorders affect children’s academic life and interpersonal relationships too (Duggal, et al., 2001). Mood changes are normal in various developmental periods with depressive and at times can be elevated too. The term ‘mood disorders’ is not used to mention these temporary mood fluctuations but the mood changes   that last in them for a longer time and affect their day today life are part of mood disorders. mood changes that last in individuals for longer periods are considered as abnormal and they need special attention and treatment, depending on the functional impairment or disability of the ind ividual (APA, 2000). Such functional impairments, if goes unnoticed, can harm the growth and development of children and can cause negative impacts on their academic performance, social and interpersonal activities (Reynolds Kamphaus, 2003). Among the victims of mood disorders, symptoms of depression are common to children and adolescents, before they attain adulthood (Ollendick, Shortt, Sander, 2005).   A recent meta-analysis by Costello et al (2006) has found that 2.8 per cent of the children under the age of 13 years suffer from depressive mood disorders whereas the prevalence rate is much higher in the adolescents in the age group of 14-18 years with 5.6 per cent. The study by Kessler et al (2001), which attempted to check the lifetime prevalence of mood disorders, has found that 25 per cent of adults with mood disorders have the onset of the disorder before attaining adulthood. Gender differences are quite visible in the matter of mood disorders. Studies have found that women are more vulnerable to depressive disorders during their adolescence (Cohen et al., 1993; Kessler et al., 2001). The ratio of depressive disorders in males and females during adolescence is 2:1 (Axelson Birmaher, 2001; Rushton, Forcier, Sc hectman, 2003). There is literature evidence for the links between unipolar depression and personality traits. The symptoms of unipolar depression are higher rate of self-criticism, neuroticism and rigid behaviour (Sauer et al., 1997) and at the same time there is scarcity of literature to support the links between personality traits and bipolar disorder. Individuals with bipolar disorder are more vulnerable than those with unipolar disorders because bipolar disorder changes people’s mood unexpectedly and they are floated between low self-regulations, negative affectivity, decreased levels of cooperation etc.   (Savitz and Ramesar, 2006). PART 2. INTERVENTION WITH CBT Esther is suffering mainly from haunting nightmares, anxiety disorders and mood disorders. The interventions that aim to support Esther have to focus these three important areas and have to understand the depth of the impacts caused by each of these problem areas. The approach we need to take is cognitive behavioural therapy approach which will help her to correct the accumulated wrong cognitions and perceptions which causes frequent nightmares, makes her worried about the safety and security of her own and that of her dear ones and to overcome the problems or issues due to depressive mood disorders. CBT is the generally accepted and approved therapy for the treatment of psychological problems affecting children and adolescents. CBT is found to be effective in treating disorders called as internalising disorders like depressive disorders, anxiety disorders, OCD (obsessive compulsive disorder), ADHD (attention deficit hyperactive disorder) and CD (conduct disorder). These disorders are the result of gradual internalising processes that take place in the mind of the individual without he/she being aware of the changes they produce in him/her (Michael A. Southam-Gerow and Philip C. Kendall, 2000). These internalised perceptions and concepts are gradually revealed through different set of behaviours which are considered to be abnormal by the society and when they exhibit certain symptoms and signs of scientific definitions are considered to be disorders (Kendall et al., 1991; Kendall, 1993). CBT FOR NIGHTMARES The primary area of intervention for Esther is her nightmares. Using the CBT approach, the therapist needs to analyse her cognitive areas which are affected by her pathological condition. One approach that can be used to help Esther is the â€Å"auto-suggested dreams† approach (Wile, 1935) which asks children to dream about the coming night. This technique is to be exercised on a regular interval and it will produce remarkable improvements in the children, within few weeks or months, depending on the severity of the nightmare problem they experience. This technique needs to be followed up for at least 4-5 months to have the expected output (Barry Krakow, M.D., 2001). Another technique propounded by Barry Krakow is the imagery rehearsal therapy which involves four group therapy sessions, each of which lasts for 2-3 hours. Where the individual’s dreaming process is observed in a therapeutic environment and rehearsed so as to correct the problems there (Barry Krakow, M.D., 2001). CBT FOR ANXIETY DISORDERS The next problem that affects Esther is her anxiety disorders. CBT is widely used in the treatment of anxiety disorders in children and adolescents. Childhood anxiety disorders are caused mostly by the environment where the child lives, which involves their peers, their academic institutions their families and the low psychological wellbeing (Costello, Egger, Angold, 2004; Verduin Kendall, 2008). It is found that about 18 per cent of children and adolescents are affected by childhood anxiety disorders (Kessler, Chiu, Demler, Walters, 2005). CBT is used to be an effective therapeutic approach for childhood anxiety disorders. (Silverman, Pina, Viswesvaran, 2008). It is also reported that the effects of CBT last for longer periods in children with childhood anxiety disorders (Glantz et al., 2009; Kendall Kessler, 2002; Kessler et al., 2007). The effects of randomised controlled trials of CBT are said to be long-lasting and highly effective in helping children to get rid completely of their problems (Kendall, Flannery-Schroeder, Safford, Webb, 2004). CBT FOR MOOD DISORDERS The next important area where Esther needs assistance is in controlling her mood related problems. CBT is highly effective in children experiencing mood disorders. The role of family, especially that of parents is highly important in using CBT in children with mood disorders, which was not recognised earlier (Lewinsohn,   Clarke,   Hops,   Andrews,   1990). In the modern CBT environment for children with mood disorders, parents are made aware with the skills, techniques etc. which are necessary for the treatment of the problems of their children. Parents’ support and involvement is found to be more effective in bringing out the expected changes in children who experienced childhood mood disorders and have undergone CBT Training. Both parents and children received benefits of latest technique of CBT. Esther’s parents also have to be included in the treatment process because the mood disorders are passed to her through both her parents who experience similar mood s in the place where they live. OTHER AREAS The therapist who intervenes with Esther has to pay special attention to the environment where she lives. The case hits that her parents too need to be observed for mood related problems. Therefore they too must be incorporated with the therapeutic process so as to ensure the effectiveness of the therapeutic approach with Esther. The family environment needs to be modified for longlasting effects. Next area that needs attention is the protection of the child from sexual abuse from the maternal step-grandfather. As her mother and aunt are already victims of his abuse, the situation of Esther is highly vulnerable. She needs to be protected from him and her parents must be educated about this issue. CONCLUSION: The case of Esther is of Nightmares, mood disorder and childhood anxiety disorder. The therapist can help her to overcome her problems through the effective use of CBT separately for all the problem areas where she suffers. Added to this her family environment which makes her maladjusted and feel insecure needs to be modified with proper education and awareness to the parents. BIBLIOGRAPHY Achenbach TM, Edelbrock CS. Behavioral problems and competencies reported by parents of normal and disturbed children aged four through sixteen. Monographs  of the  Society  for Research in  Child Development. 1981;4:61–82 American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, fourth edition (text revision). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association. Anderson, J. C. (1994). Epidemiological issues. In T. H. Ollendick, N. J. King, W. Yule (Eds.), International handbook of phobic and anxiety disorders in children and adolescents (pp. 43–66). 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What is the difference between the terms production management and operations management? The difference between the terms production management and operations management is that production management is related mainly to manufacturing. Meanwhile, operation management includes manufacturing as well as service industries. 3. How does the function of an operations manager differ from the function of a marketing manager or a finance manager? How are these functions similar? The function of an operations manager is to create the supply of goods, whereas the marketing managers function is to create the demand for goods. Meanwhile the function of a finance manager is to secure and allocate the capital to produce the goods. These functions are similar because decisions made by all three managers affect four types of operations decisions including process, quality, capacity and inventory. Therefore, a high level of integration is needed between decisions made by the marketing, finance, and operations managers. 4. How is the operations management field related to the fields of human resources, information systems, or accounting? The human resources function directly influences the skills level of operations workforce, their capacity and availability to perform work, and their ability to work as a team towards common goals. Operations management is a major internal customer of information systems, and as a result, these systems generally support specific operations decisions such as capacity determination, forecasting, quality management, inventory control, and scheduling. Be similar to finance, accounting interacts with all four decision categories in operations, particularly when capital or measurement of operations is required. 5. Describe the nature of operations management in the following organizations. In doing this, first identify the purpose and products of the organization; then use the four decision types to identify important operations decisions and responsibilities. a. A college library b. A hotel c. A small manufacturing firm a. A college library Purpose: Make information available to students and faculty. Products: Services and products in the forms of books, periodicals, reference materials, the internet, etc. Process: First, designing the way the facility is arranged with an emphasis on fiction, non-fiction, reference, periodical, and administrative sections. Second, we decide the kinds of office equipment will support the students and staff. Third, we determine how materials will be recorded, checked in/out, and returned to their proper book-shelf. Fourth, we determine the type of information technology equipment that used to support the circulation process and student internet access. Fifth, we consider who will be responsible for library operation and who will monitor and evaluate their performance. Quality: Be sure that materials are up to date and relevant. Make sure that the staff is available to assist library. Manage feedback system to monitor student and faculty satisfaction. Capacity: The library services and materialss demand affect the size of the shelves, what it carries, the number of librarians, and when those employees are scheduled Inventory: How many books, magazines, encyclopedias, computers needed to meet the demands of students and faculty b. A hotel Purpose: Provide a comfortable place for guests Products: Services and goods in the forms of room service, beds, premium linens, pools, night-clubs, foods, etc. Process: First, information architecture will be required to support the guest reservation, payment, check in/out, and entertainment processes. Second, equipment needed to support the room, housekeeping, and food service divisions. Third, job descriptions and performance standards required for staff in each of those divisions. Fourth, management needed for monitoring employee performance and resolving guests feedbacks. Quality: Be sure that the rooms are clean, and affordable. Make sure that staff maintains friendly attitudes with guests. Capacity: Local demands determine the number of available rooms, the convenience provided, and how many employees of each department will serve. Inventory: Local demand affects inventory variation to support the hotels administrative, household management, and food service divisions. c. A small manufacturing firm Purpose: Provide merchandise with high quality to the consumer at the lowest possible cost Products: Physical goods come along with the essential services to support those goods Process: What type of industrial facilities will be equipped? How large a facility will be needed to house the production line and administrative support offices? How the goods will be designed, manufactured, packaged, marketed, and supported? Quality: Use a quality control process to detect and reduce defects. Make sure that staff maintains friendly attitudes with customers during all levels of the sales and support processes. Capacity: Physical facilities labor. Inventory: What, when how much raw materials kept on hand to facilitate the manufacturing process? 6. For the organizations listed in questions 5, describe the inputs, transformation process, and outputs of the production system. a. A college library Input: The librarys staff decides and collects books, periodicals, reference materials which match the colleges requirements Transformation: First, accountant pays out for the cost of buying books, shelves, and other facilities. Second, librarians arrange and lay out books so as to make them available to students and faculties. Output: Students and faculties refer and borrow books, periodicals, reference materials. b. A hotel Input: Rooms and amenities, employees, capital, and other resources. Transformation: Use those above inputs to offer hotel services. Output: Customers hire and use services c. A small manufacturing firm Input: Energy, materials, labor, capital, information. Transformation: tracking all component parts, work in process, packaging materials. Output: finished goods, and general supplies. 7. Describe the decision-making and the process view of operations management. Why are both these views useful in studying the field of operations management? The decision-making is a process of deciding or settling something important, especially in a group of people or in an organization. On the other hand, it is the way we choose between alternative courses of action using cognitive processes memory, thinking, evaluation. The process view of operations management provides a basis of defining service and transformation process as well as a foundation for analysis and design of operations. Both these views are useful in studying the field of operations management because the decision-making provides a foundation to divide operations into part such as process, quality, capacity and inventory. Meanwhile, the process view provides essential insights for the productive processes in functional areas. 8. Write a short paper on some of the challenges facing operations management in the future. Use newspapers and business magazines from the library or the Internet as your primary sources. Operations management is not a sustainable thing. It always changes and copes with new challenges in the future. First, globalization is one of the integral challenges facing operations management today and into the future. Operations managers will have to face global competition today and in the future. One of the examples is the lawsuit between Apple and Samsung now. Apple has started proceedings against Samsung for copying the designs of iPhone and iPad (Daily Mail, 2011). Although Samsung a Korean company is a supplier and partner of Apple an American group, the lawsuit still happens because they are competitors on mobile devices field. Second, environmental responsibility will affect operations management in the future. The changes in environmental rules may change processes and capacity. Third, operations management will face awareness of technology and its trends as an indispensable challenge. Technology has changed everything in operations and it will continue. For example, automation system could replace human resource more than ever. Overall, those things are only three parts of challenges facing operations management in the future. However, they are typical challenges today and into the future. 9. Review the want ads in The Wall Street Journal or use the Internet to look for management positions that are available for operations management graduates. On Monster.com, MANUFACTURING BWAY Corporation has sought an operation manager for coordinating manufacturing process. This position includes production, scheduling, safety, maintenance/à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ ¹repair, quality management. Candidates have at least five years experiences as a Production Operations Manager; college degree and effective communication ability. Also, it requires candidates to be able to ensure quality and delivery performance for the plant (Monster, 2011). 10. How do changes in the environment, such as demand changes, new pollution control laws, the changing value of the dollar, and price changes, affect operations? Name specià ¯Ã‚ ¬Ã‚ c impacts on operations for each change. Changes in demand, law, currency value, etc. affect significantly to operations. Operations have to adapt to such changes quickly. The demand changes will increase or decrease the number of products, thereby affect process, capacity and inventory. On the other hand, every addition and change in the pollution control laws, operations must consider that production process use safe and certificated resources. If a manufacturing process does not match the law, it will be redesigned and reconsidered. The changing value of dollar will cause a lot of effects. It will affect the environment such as the customers demand, transportation cost, etc. Price changes will increase or cut down the input cost, thereafter affect production cost and finished goods price. 11. Find examples of well-run and poorly run operations in recent business periodicals such as BusinessWeek, Fortune, and the Wall Street Journal. What can you learn from these examples? On the Wall Street Journal, there is an article that describes Fujitsu, a well-run operation in the difficult time after disasters (Osawa, 2011). Fujitsu has prepared for all possible contingencies in order to reconsider the production process after catastrophes. I can learn from this example something valuable, particularly, Fujitsu has clear plan and they made decision quickly after disasters. Therefore, the production system was not interrupted for a long time. In one BusinessWeeks article, MGM Grand had an issue on engaging employees with operations. Sometimes employees did not know what meetings were at the hotel (BusinessWeek, 2009). From this example, it is clear that stuck of staff would affect operations such as customer loyalty, return visits, and spending in the hotel. 12. Identify some of the current trends in operations that you think are of critical importance. Some current trends in operations that are critical importance: Global Competition Operations Strategy Supply Chain Management Lean manufacturing 13. Describe how operations process thinking can be applied to the following types of work: a. Acquisition of another company. b. Closing the books at the end of the year. c. Marketing research for a new product. d. Design of an information system. e. Hiring a new employee. Operations process thinking can be applied well to various types of work by following process, quality, capacity and inventory. a. Acquisition of another company Process: Consider and seek to take over another company or at least gain a controlling interest in that company. Quality: Minimize the expenses of cash in making the acquisition. Capacity: Ensure that we can borrow a significant amount of money to pay for the acquisition. b. Closing the books at the end of the year. Process: Prepare financial statements. Quality: The accounting revisited to ensure all statements are proper. c. Marketing research for a new product. Process: Corporate staff makes some of the process decisions. They have developed a standard that is simply sized to à ¯Ã‚ ¬Ã‚ t customers demand. Quality: Products must follow certain standards for quality that have been set by the corporate staff. Capacity: Decisions about capacity determine the maximum level of output of products Inventory: Select appropriate suppliers and decide how much components to order and when to place orders. d. Design of an information system. Process: Analyze and design system requirements from different perspectives. Quality: Ensure that design meets the requirements. Capacity: The information system has ability to satisfy every work today and into the future.

Exception to Rule of Law Article 14

ExceptionToRuleOFLaw The above rule   of equality is however not an absolute rule and there are   number exception to it v  Ã¢â‚¬ËœEquality of Law’ does not mean the power of the private citizens are the same as the power of the public officials. Thus a police officer has the power to arrest you while no other private person has this power. This is not violation of rule of law. But rule of law does require that these powers should be clearly defined by law and that abuse of authority   by public officers must be punished by ordinary courts.The rule of law does not prevent certain class of persons   being subject to special rules. Thus members of   armed forces are controlled by military rules. Similarly medical practitioners are controlled by medicalcouncilofIndia Certain members of society are governed by special rules in their profession i. e. lawyers, doctors, nurses, members of armed forces and police. Such classes of people are treated differentlyfromordinaryc itizens. Article 14 Permits Classification But Prohibits Class Legislation The equal protection of laws guaranteed by Article 14 does not mean that all laws must be general in character.It does not mean that the same laws should apply to all persons. It does not attainment or circumstances in the same position. The varying needs of different classes of persons often requires separate treatment. From the vary nature of society there should be different laws in different places and the legitimate controls the policy and enacts laws in the best interest of the safety and security of the state. In fact identical treatment in unequal circumstances would amount to inequality. So a reasonable classification is only not permitted but is necessary if society is to progress.Thus what Article 14 forbids is class-legislation but it does not forbid reasonable classification. The classification however must not be â€Å"arbitrary ,artificial or evasive† but must be based on some real and s ubstantial bearing a just and reasonable relation to the object sought to be achieved by the legislation. Article 14 applies where equals are treated differently without any reasonable basis. But where equals and unequals are treated differently, Article 14 does not apply. Class legislation   is that which makes an improper discrimination by conferring particular privileges upon a lass of   persons   arbitrarily selected from a large number of persons all of whom stand in the same relation to the privilege granted that between whom and the persons not so favored no reasonable distinction or substantial difference can be found justifying the inclusion of one and the exclusion of the other from such privilege. TestOfReasonableClassification While Article 14 frobids class legislation it does not forbid reasonable classification of persons, objects, and transactions by the legislature for the purpose of achieving specific ends.But classification must not be â€Å"arbitrary ,artif icial or evasive†. It must always rest upon some real upon some real and substantial distinction bearing a just and reasonable relation to the object sought to be achieved by the legislation. Classification to be reasonable must fulfil the following two conditions Firstly the classification must be founded on the intelligible differentia which distinguishes persons or thing that are grouped together from others left out of the group Secondly the differentia must have a rational relation to the object sought to be achieved by the act.The differentia which is the basis of the classification   and the object of the act are two distinct things. What is   necessary is that there must be nexus between the basis of classification and the object of the act which makes the classification. It is only when there is no reasonable basis for a classification that legislation making such   classification may be declared discriminatory. Thus the legislature may fix the age at which pers ons shall be deemed competent to contract between themselves but no one will claim that competency.No contract can   be made to depend upon the stature or colour of the hair. Such a classificationwillbearbitrary. The true meaning and scope of Article 14 have been explained in a number of cases  by the supreme court. In view of this the propositions laid down in Damia case still hold good governing a valid classificationandareasfollows. 1. A law may be constitutional even though it relates to a single individual if on account of some special circumstances or reasons applicable to him and not applicable to others, that single individual may be treated as a class y itself 2. There is always presumption in favour of the constitutionality of a statute and the burden is upon him who attacks it to show that there has been a clear transgression of constitutional principles. 3. The presumption may be rebutted in certain cases by showing that on the fact   of the statue, there is no cla ssification and no difference peculiar to any individual or class   and not applicable to any other individual or class, and yet the law hits only a particular individual or class 4.It must be   assumed that Legislature correctly understand and appreciates the need of its own people that its law are directed to problem made manifest by experience and that its discrimination are based on adequategrounds 5. In order to sustain the presumption of constitutionality the court may take into consideration maters of common knowledge, matters of report, the history of the times and may assume every state of facts which can be conceived existing at the time of the legislation. 6. Thus the legislation is free to recognize degrees of harm and may confine its restriction to those cases where the need is deemed to be the clearest. . While good faith and knowledge of the existing conditions on the part of a legislature are to be presumed, if there is nothing on the face of the law or the surro unding circumstances brought to the notice of the court on which the classification may reasonable be regarded as based, the presumption of constitutionality cannot be carried to extent always that there must be some undisclosed and unknown   reason for subjecting certain individuals or corporation to be hostile or discriminating legislation 8. The classification may be made on different bases e. . geographical or according to object or occupation or the like. 9. The classification made by the legislature need not be scientifically perfect or logically complete. Mathematical nicety and perfect equality are not required. Equality before the law does not require mathematical equality of all persons in all circumstances. Equal treatment does not mean identical treatment. Similarly not identity of treatment is enough. 10. There can be discrimination both in the substantive as well as the procedural law.Article 14 applies to both. If the classification satisfies the test laid down in t he above propositions, the law will be declared constitutional. The question whether a classification is reasonable and proper and not must however, be judged more on commonsense than on legal subtitles. Cases D. S. Nakarav. UnionOfIndia The Government issued an office memorandum announcing a liberalized pension scheme for retired government servants but made it applicable to those who had retired after 31 March 1979.The supreme   court held that the fixing of the cut off date to be discriminatory as violating Article 14. The devision of pensioners into two classes on the basis of the date of retirement was not based on any rational principle because a difference of two days in the matter of retiremnt could hav a traumatic effect on the pensioner. Such a classification held to be arbitrary and unprincipled as there was no acceptable or persuasive reason in its favour. The said classification had no rational nexus with the object sought to achieved.MadhuLimayev. Supdt. TiharJailDel hi There were Indian and Europian Prisoners. Both were treated differently. Europian gets better diet. Court held that difference between Indian and   Europian prisoners in the matter of treatment and diet violates right to equality under Article 14 of Indian prisoners. They all are prisoners they must treat equally. SanaboinaSatyanarayanv. Govt. ofA. P In Andra Pradesh. They formulate a scheme for prevention of crime against women.In prisons also prisoners were classify in to two category first Prisoners guilty of crime against women and second prisoners who are not guilty of crime against women. Prisoners who are guilty of crime against women challenge the court saying that there right to equality is deprived. Court held that there is resoanble classification to achieve some objective. TamilNadu  ElectricityBoardv. Veeraswamy The employee were governed by the contributory provident fund scheme. With effect from 1-7-1986 a scheme was introduced.The question was whether the pens ion scheme ought to be applied to those who had already retired before the introduction of the pension scheme the supreme court rejected the claim. As per the rules prevalent at the time the retirees had received all their retiral benefits. If the pension scheme was made applicable to all past retirees, the resulting financial burden would be Rs200 crore which would be beyond the capacity of employer. The reason given for introducing the scheme was financial constraint- a valid ground.The court held that retired employees and those who were in employment on 1-7-1986 cant be treated alike as they do not belong to one class. Te workmen who had retired and received all the benefits under the contributory provident fund scheme cease to be employees of the applellant   board w. e. f. the date of their retirement. They form a separate   class. Thus there was no illegality in introducing the pension scheme and   not making it applicable retrospectively to those who hadretiredbeforeth edate. ConclusionWhat article 14 forbids is discrimination by law that is treating persons similarly circumstanced differently and treating those not similarly circumstanced in the same way or as has been pithily put treating equals as unequals   and unequals as equals. Article 14 prohibits hostile classification by law and isdirectedagainstdiscriminatoryclasslegislation. A legislature for the purpose of dealing with the complex problem that arise out of an infinite variety of human relations cannot but proceed on some sort of selection or classification of persons upon whom the legislationistooperate.Its is well settled that Article 14 frobid classification for the purpose of legislation. Its is equally well settled that in order to meet the test of Article 14 (i)  classification must be based on intelligible differentia which distinguishes persons or things that are grouped together from those that are left out of group and  (ii)  the differentia must have a rational nexus to the objects sought to be achieved by the executive or legislative action under challenge. Article 14 contains a guarantee of equality before law to all persons and protection to them against discrimination by law. It forbids class legislation.

Articles of Confederation vs. Constitution Essay

The Articles of Confederation and the Constitution each had their own impacts on the United States economy. It can be shown that the drafting of the Constitution reversed the control of economic authority between the national government and the states, specifically regarding the laying and levying of taxes. The stipulations of taxation are clarified in the Articles and the Constitution through Article VIII and Article I, Section 8, respectively. Both statements provide for an easy analysis of taxation considering the means of taxation and how it is assessed, who collects the taxes, and the purpose of these duties. An additional observation can be made regarding the effects of slavery on the Constitution and how that is reflective of the economic impacts of the document. With the comparison of these aspects, a conclusion can be made about the reasoning behind the change of this provision in the Articles. The American Revolution resulted in a substantial amount of debt for the United States. To finance the War of Independence, Congress had borrowed large sums of money by selling interest-bearing bonds and paying soldiers and suppliers in notes to be redeemed in the future (Foner, 200). The Continental Congress owed $42 million at the end of the revolution (Lecture #9). The states lacked a secure source of revenue, so they had to address taxation in their first written constitution, The Articles of Confederation. They used this constitution as an initial attempt to apportion taxes to the states. The Articles of Confederation primarily addresses taxation in its eighth article. According to this article, the government is levying taxes to each state as a whole, based on the value of each state. The taxes collected will be used to fund a single account to pay the charges of war. This is clarified in the document when Article VIII states that the à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“common treasury which shall be supplied by the several States in proportion to the value of all land within each state.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  Furthermore, the document states that any additional improvements of buildings and land will be taken into account for the estimation of the value of the respective state. This stipulation allows the assembly of Congress to increase taxes with any proportional increase in the value of the land within a state. The next  paragraph of the article refers to who will be laying and collecting these taxes. It declares that the dues will be à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“laid and levied by the authority and direction of the legislatures of the several States.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  The main notion to be extracted from the Articles of Confederation is the fact that Congress did not possess the power to levy taxes or regulate commerce by any means. The states retained the ability to adopt their own economic policies. Utilizing this power, several states printed sums of money in order for individuals to pay their debts (Foner, 200). In summation, Article VIII of the Articles of Confederation left Congress with very little financial power as well as a lack of a dependable source of revenue. Due to the need for better regulation of interstate commerce, a group of fifty-five delegates congregated to form the Constitutional Convention, with the objective of drafting an entirely new constitution. The Constitution completely reversed the distribution of authority, transferring numerous economic powers from the states to Congress. This is verified in the first clause of Article I, Section 8 of the document in which it affirms that Congress has the power à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“to lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  Unlike the Articles of Confederation, which imposed taxes based on the value of each state, the first clause of the Constitution announced a uniform collection of duties, imposts, and excises throughout the United States. From this clause, it can be understood that these taxes will now be collected by Congress, in contrast to state legislatures. However, the purpose of the taxation remains consistent with the first constitution, as they both use the money to pay debts, provide for the common defense, and promote the general welfare of the United States. Additional clauses empowered Congress to regulate interstate and international commerce, as well as borrow and coin money. The Constitution also included conditions that barred the states from issuing paper money, levying taxes, and interfering with commerce (Foner, 205). As stated, these provisions stripped the states of the power they retained under the Articles, and bestowed them onto Congress. Moreover, an emphasis can be placed on the issue of slavery, as it had a significant impact on the economy as well. Slavery was not notably  recognized in the Articles of Confederation, but was implicitly addressed in the Constitution. One prominent acknowledgement of slavery with respect to the economy was the Three-Fifths Compromise. This proclaims that taxes shall be apportioned to States based on the sum of à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“free Persons, including those bound to Service for a Term of Years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three fifths of all other Persons.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  By counting slaves as property as well as three fifths of a person toward the census, people with more slaves owed more taxes (Lecture #9). Congress also found a source of revenue by allowing importation of slaves, yet taxing those that are taking them in. This is indicated in the Non-Importation Clause, which states that à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“a Tax or Duty may be imposed on such Importation, not exceeding ten dollar s for each Person (Article I, Section 9). When writing the Constitution, the national government clearly found ways to generate revenue from slavery. In addition, slavery had a large influence on the Constitutionà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s impact on the United States economy. Article VIII of the Articles of Confederation may have been drastically altered into Article I, Section 8 of the Constitution for a number of reasons. The transfer of power from the state legislatures to the national government that resulted from this provision change can be proven to be a purely economic decision. Due to the overwhelming debt from the war, Congress needed a more controllable, secure source of income. Consequently, the delegates at the Constitutional Convention drafted this section to put control back into the national governmentà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s hands. With the Articles of Confederation, the states were separate, but equally powerful entities. One can perceive that the national government did not believe the states would be able to succeed with this system in place. The Constitution generated a more unified and collective assembly to work toward c ommon goals. This was made possible by reassigning the economic sovereignty to the national government. In conclusion, the drafting of the Constitution can be simplified to a transfer of economic power to the national government used to generate secure sources of revenue to get out of debt. The Articles of Confederation was merely too passive and vague to create a dependable taxation plan. The Constitution administered a well-defined formulation to allow an easier way for the national government to collect income. Giving Congress a substantially greater extent of economic dominance and the states more limitations, the national government was able to utilize a widespread  amount of resources to implement taxation. Clearly, the change of Article VIII to Article I, Section 8 spawned an absolute change of power from the states to the national government.

The Issue Of Gun Control - 985 Words

Gun control is a topic that has gained a lot of momentum lately. There have been several horrific tragedies that have occurred over the last few years. The debate continues whether access to guns is directly linked to crime and violence and identifying the steps needed to prevent such tragedies in the future. The public and those in public office have been reviewing whether more stringent controls on gun purchases and on gun owners with a mental illness should be implemented and what these controls might look like. A person’s mental health should be considered when purchasing a firearm because of incidents like Sandy Hook. Having a gun doesn’t automatically make you a murderer. A murder is usually never an ordinary individual but rather†¦show more content†¦Gun owners tend to be white, male, conservative and live in rural areas (Jervis, 2016). Data from the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) show that on an average day, 93 Americans are killed with guns. The gun debate has been dominated by the Nation Rifle Association which promotes gun use for hunting and target/sport shooting. The National Rifle Association is a nonprofit organization that promote gun safety and lobbying under the second amendment, the right to bear arms. NRA (National Rifle Association) has 3 million members, and sponsors and encourages target shooting, hunting, safety training, and shooting sports (Fisher, C. E., Lieberman, J. A., 2013). The NRA has had success due to their strength in numbers within their NRA group. The NRA will support any elective that supports gun accessibility. Many American’s just carry a gun for self-protection. Some Americans believe that society deserves to be protected and that we need firearms for the security and self-defense of our U.S. citizens. In the United States, approximately 14% of households with a gun report that they have used a gun for protection (Leddy, 1991). Gun violence is an epidemic. Many lives have been lost since people have could obtain firearms legally or illegally. In very basic terms, gun violence is the use of a gun in an unlawful way or to cause harm or death either accidentally or intentionally. Per the Mass Shooting Tracker (2016)Show MoreRelatedGun Issue And Gun Control1401 Words   |  6 PagesUniversity, Gun Politics has been a course I have aspired to take. While many enroll in such a course looking for an escape from the â€Å"collegiate liberal echo chamber† or as an outlet for their conservative agendas, I saw the class as an â€Å"entrance to the dark side.† My views on guns prior to the class were, I would call, polarized yet uninformed. In most of my discussions, I would cite the Australian 1996 National Firearms Agreement as precedent for how American politicians should approach the gun issueRead MoreThe Issue Of Gun Control Essay1646 Words   |  7 Pagessomebody who wants to inflict harm on oth er people to get his or her hands on a gun.† (Simple Minded Gun Control). Gun control is a controversial issue worldwide. The reason why this has attracted so much attention is because not everyone is in favor of gun control and each side brings up excellent points about the issue. Research related to this issue strongly supports the claim that there SHOULD be more gun control laws. Three arguments that prove this position are (1) Incidents like Sandy HookRead MoreThe Issue Of Gun Control1489 Words   |  6 Pagessplit on the issue of gun control. We have seen many violent shootings and innocent people dying because of gun violence. Some Americans believe we need strict gun laws to protect our children and ourselves from these horrific tragedies. Other Americans believes it is our rights as Americans to posses’ guns and we are entitled to that right in our constitution. There are also some Americans that are stuck in the middle and can see both sides but recent events have definitely caused this issue to be inRead MoreThe Issue Of Gun Control1031 Words   |  5 Pagesintegrate them in a way that will trigger a new viewpoint on the subject. Gun control is something that should be enforced across the world in order to save lives. In the United States there is a ratio of 88.8 guns per one hundred persons (GunPolicy.org). Those numbers award us with the highest total per capita number in the world. With that amount of firepower there needs to be an efficient way to regulate who exactly can purchase a gun. Since 1791 when the second amendment was ratified there have beenRead MoreThe Issue Of Gun Control1705 Words   |  7 Pagesaway without preface or reason. All someone needs to do is pull the trigger. In today’s world, guns are far too accessible to the people of society. We hear in the news, stories of mass shootings, homicides, and suicides; most of which are caused by the activation of a gun. A hot-button issue, gun control is one of the most debated topics in American politics. Should we, or should we not, be able to own guns? Although it infringes on the Second Amendment that provides the right to bear arms, this amendmentRead MoreThe Issue Of Gun Control951 Words   |  4 PagesGun control has been a big topic for the past decade in the united states. These debates will rise and fall time in and time out after something horrific happens in the state. Anti-Gun supporters do not realize that it is extremely difficult to regulate something in the states that is a big portion of our economy.Would stricter gun laws change anything? So far statistically It has been proven otherwise one must consider how a citizen would defend themselves when they are faced with terror. How willRead MoreThe Issue Of Gun Control929 Words   |  4 PagesGun Control Getting arrested yesterday was not the highlight of my week. I was hungry; so I went to Wal-Mart get some charcoal, lighter fluid, and steak. I put the charcoal in the grill and the lighter fluid on the coals. I got a little lighter fluid on my arm, but I didn’t pay it much attention. I lit the match and threw it on the coals. I looked down and my sleeve was on fire. I was waving my arm in the air, trying to put it out. Then here they come the police pulled in and tackled me to theRead MoreThe Issue Of Gun Control1552 Words   |  7 PagesThe issue of gun is always controversial. Firearm can be used as defending or an assaulting weapon. In United States, firearm increase the rate of homicide, suicide and gun violence, which can harm and murder people. Moreover, taking away people’s gun will not work effectively because the murder and criminal will find another ways to get guns. Also, the black market will appear for the people who cannot get guns from regulated market s. In addition, if regulated guns are banned, murderers may useRead MoreThe Issue Of Gun Control1678 Words   |  7 PagesJanuary 2014 The 2nd Amendment Over the past few years, the issue of gun control has been widely discussed. You surely have heard the phrase, â€Å"Guns don’t kill people, people kill people† uttered and i wholeheartedly support this statement. It is important to treat guns responsibly so they do not end up in the wrong hands. I believe gun control violates our inalienable rights. Another piece of our liberty will surely be taken away if guns are banned, and socialism and totalitarianism will be rightRead MoreThe Issue Of Gun Control1208 Words   |  5 PagesWill Christopherson Traverson English 2 1 March 2017 Gun Control The United States has 88.8 guns per 100 people, or about 270,000,000 guns, which is the highest total and per capita number across the globe. The current public gun control debate in the United States seems to be placed on standby until it is sparked up by a major mass shooting. There were at least 126 mass shootings between January 2000 and July 2014.(pro). Opponents of more gun laws accuse supporters of using a horrific event to further